Introduction

Background to the Study

There is no doubt that employee satisfaction and retention play a pivotal role in influencing organizational performance and success (Armstrong, 2003; Dessler, 2000; Hubbar & Beamish, 2011). Chi & Gursoy (2009) emphasizes on the need for organizations to understand ways through which employees are satisfied and motivated towards achieving their individual as well as organizational goals. In the contemporary business environment, employee satisfaction is a critical success factor, especially because of the intense competition, which compels organizations to draw their competitive advantage using the human factor (Kim, 2002; Yee, Yeung, & Cheng, 2008). In this regard, Brown & Lam (2008) asserts that organizations must establish a workplace environment that can motivate employees to provide quality response with respect to customers’ needs. Emerson (2012) established a positive correlation between employee satisfaction and customer satisfaction in service industries, which implies that organizational success significantly depends on the level of employees’ satisfaction. In addition, employee satisfaction does not help in improving productivity, but also plays a significant role in improving the quality of work. In the contemporary milieu, it is vital for organizations to have an understand the feelings of their employees, how they think as well as their desires in order to discover ways through which workforce commitment and devotion can be enhanced (Hubbar & Beamish, 2011; Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, & Wright, 2003). With high levels of workforce commitment and devotion, organizations can report favorable business outcomes while at the same time increasing employee retention rates.

Given the significance of employee satisfaction and retention, various organizations are coming up with strategies aimed at satisfying their employees and motivating them to achieve their individual and organizational goals (Lockwood, 2004; Yazdani, Yaghoubi, & Giri, 2011). For instance, some firms have relied on training and development opportunities; others have relied on creating an organizational culture that takes into consideration the values and desires of their employees; and others have relied on rewards. Nevertheless, very few organizations have considered the value of continuous improvement approaches in promoting employee retention and satisfaction (Mirko, Jelena, Zdravko, & Aleksandar, 2009). Mirko, Jelena, Zdravko, & Aleksandar (2009) defined continuous improvement as “an unending improvement of organizational processes with the aim of achieving higher performance levels via incremental change.” From this definition, it is evident that continuous improvement entails the organization constantly measuring the effectiveness of its processes, and using incremental change to improve this effectiveness. Russ (2008) establishes a link between continuous improvement and Human Resources (HR) processes, which include talent flow, rewards and training and development. Russ (2008) maintains that the culture of continuous improvement is vital in these HR processes, which are variables that determine employee satisfaction and retention. In the wake of this view, this study seeks to explore the continuous improvement approaches deployed by Emirates Airline to promote employee satisfaction and retention.

Statement of Problem

Just like other business entities operating in an uncertain and competitive airline industry, Emirates Airlines is facing a myriad of challenges compelling it to devise a method to establish competitive advantage. As aforementioned, a positive correlation exists between employee satisfaction and customer satisfaction; therefore, human resources offer a viable option through which Emirates Airlines can develop sustainable competitive advantage (Lockwood, 2004). This implies that Emirates Airlines can exploit employee satisfaction to leverage competitive advantage by devising measures to ensure that its employees are satisfied and motivated and would want to continue working with the company. In this regard, this study explores the continuous improvement measures that Emirates Airlines are currently deploying to satisfy and retain its employees.

Research Aims and Objectives

The primary objective of this study is to investigate the continuous improvement measures that Emirates Airlines are using to promote employee satisfaction and retention. The following are the specific objectives of this study:

1. To determine the continuous approaches used at Emirates Airlines to promote employee satisfaction and retention;
2. To investigate employees’ perceptions regarding the continuous improvement measures used at Emirates Airlines;
3. To determine the effectiveness of the continuous improvement measures in promoting employee satisfaction and retention;
4. To make recommendations on how Emirates Airlines should structure its continuous improvement measures to meet the needs of employees.
5. What are the continuous improvement approaches deployed by Emirates Airlines to promote employee satisfaction and retention?
6. What are the employees’ perceptions towards the continuous improvement measures used at Emirates Airlines;
7. What is the effectiveness of the continuous improvement measures used by Emirates Airlines?

Research Questions

Scope of Study

Instead of using data from diverse organizations in diverse industries, this research will focus only on their airline industry. Specifically, data will be gathered from the employees of Emirates Airlines.

Literature Review

Overview of Employee Satisfaction and Retention

Armstrong (2003) asserts that employee satisfaction describes the level to which employees are contented and happy with respect to fulfilling their needs and desires at work. Several measures maintain that employee satisfaction is vital variable in employee goal attainment, employee motivation, and positive employee morale (Dessler, 2000; Yazdani, Yaghoubi, & Giri, 2011). Yee, Yeung, & Cheng (2008) identify a number of factors influencing employee satisfaction, which include employees’ empowerment, offering perks, providing compensation and benefits that are above the industry-average, consistent recognition of employees’ efforts, and positive management. A study by Yazdani, Yaghoubi, & Giri (2011) reported a positive correlation between salaries and wages and employee satisfaction.

Chi & Gursoy (2009) stipulates that no organization is capable of achieving its goals if it lacks the suitable set of employees. Employees play a pivotal role in determining the success of the organization. This explains why organizations allocate extensive resources and efforts to attract and retain the top talent. A survey by Kim (2002) reported that most organizations gauge employees’ performance using his/her level of skills and knowledge; however, most firms overlook the role that employees’ satisfaction plays in influencing their performance. Several studies and surveys have affirmed that employee satisfaction plays a significant role in determining their performance (Brown & Lam, 2008; Chi & Gursoy, 2009; Emerson, 2012). In this regard, Hubbar & Beamish (2011) recommends that, if an organization aims to get the best out of its workforce, it must offer the best measures aimed at satisfying the requirements and needs of its employees.

McKenzie & Van Winkelen (2004) established a positive link between employee satisfaction and customer satisfaction and service quality, especially in the service industry, which is linked to a firm’s profitability. One of the effective ways of enhancing employee satisfaction is through employee empowerment. Employee retention denotes the ability of an enterprise to retain its workforce. In the business environment, the goal of organizations is to lessen employee turnover, which in turn reduces loss of talent, loss of knowledge, and recruitment and training costs. Noe (2008) outlines a number of strategies that can be deployed by organizations to retain employees, which include offering competitive benefits packages, offering employees with financial incentives, providing training and development opportunities, and making sure that employees are aware of what the organization expects from them.

Overview of Continuous Improvement

Continuous improvement refers to ongoing efforts aimed at improving processes, services or products. According to Mirko, Jelena, Zdravko, & Aleksandar (2009), the ongoing efforts have the primary objective of ensuring either “incremental” improvement as time goes, or “breakthrough” improvement implemented at once. According to Volney (2010), continuous improvement entails constant evaluation of processes, products or services and identifying gaps for improvement with respect to their effectiveness, efficiency and flexibility. Edwards Deming, the pioneer continuous improvement, saw the process as involving a system wherein feedback is from customers and processes are evaluated with respect to organizational goals (Volney, 2010; Russ, 2008). In the contemporary business environment, customers and the competitive landscape are changing and evolving on a daily basis. For instance, product offerings by competitors are likely to have more features in future, and cost relatively less than their current price; currencies are likely to change; and emerging technologies are likely to have an impact on the manner in which business is conducted. Russ (2008) stipulates that continually changing markets have an effect across all industries; therefore, for enterprises to compete effectively, they need to be improving faster relative to their competitors. Mirko, Jelena, Zdravko, & Aleksandar, (2009) assert that a firm’s products are at risk of becoming obsolete if the firm fails to keep the pace with the dynamic market demands. In other words, organizations must be prepared adequately to adapt and evolve to the dynamic market conditions. In this respect, only the enterprises that are better at adapting will remain competitive in future, something that can be achieved through continuous improvement.

Russ (2008) stipulates that continuous improvement strategies enable firms to adapt and utilize new technologies and ideas. Most organizations compete using their services and products; however, it is imperative for firms to compete on the basis of their ability to improve. Volney (2010) reports that firms having the capability to improve how and what they do are capable of maintaining and growing their market share. If an organization can improve at rate that is faster relative to its competitors can secure more market share in the future. Adapting efficiently and quickly is a critical success factor for organizations in the contemporary business environment, which is facilitated by a good continuous improvement culture (Mirko, Jelena, Zdravko, & Aleksandar, 2009). Volney (2010) develoepd a simple model that organizations can use to achieve continual improvement. The model is shown in the figure 1 below.

 

Figure 1: Model for achieving continual improvement

Informing the employees that the organization needs them to improve what they do is the first requirement and plays a vital role in the success of continuous improvement processes. In this regard, Volney (2010) recommends that firms should communicate to their employees the specific aspects that the organization seeks to continually improve through avenues such as team briefings, organizational strategy reviews and the firm’s newsletters. Nevertheless, a survey by Yee, Yeung, & Cheng (2008) reported that most organizations overlook this step in favor of lean training, six sigma and fancy consultants. The next step involves harvesting the opportunity ideas for continual improvement. Dessler (2000) stipulates that continuous improvement culture places emphasis on ensuing that there is forward improvement change; as a result, an effective realization of this requires the firm to capture the process to be improved, and distribute and monitor the opportunities for improvement found in the organization. The next step in developing the continuous improvement culture within the organization is to empower the workforce. Studies by Lockwood (2004) reported that continuous improvement approaches are more effective in organizations having a workforce that is empowered to improve. In order for a firm to improve faster relative to its competitors, it should strive to empower and encourage employees to make improvements directly on their own; this increases the firm’s improvement capacity while at the same time maximizing the volume of improvement and change. The last step involves measuring, reporting and celebrating the improvement activity. Russ (2008) maintains that it is a good practice for an organization to regularly provide feedback regarding the progress of continuous improvement processes initiated in the organization. This helps in enhancing the commitment of the organization towards continuous improvement processes deployed at all levels across different units within the organization.

Continuous Improvement in HR

            In any organization, the Human Resources (HR) department is concerned with managing people within the organization. Lockwood (2004) stipulates that the large responsibility associated with HRM gives the HR department the power to make substantial improvements within the firm. Essential, the HR department should be at the forefront in encouraging continuous improvement initiatives within the firm with the goal of increasing the firm’s performance. In present day challenging business environment, firms are increasingly relying on concepts such as six sigma, lean manufacturing and continuous improvement to enhance their efficiency and productivity. In this regard, it is crucial for the firm to align its HR practices to the continuous improvement culture in order to have a considerable impact on the firm performance (Kurt & Birgit, 2007; LLoyd, 2002; Mauno, Kinnunen, & Ruokolainen, 2007). McKenzie & Van Winkelen (2004) reports that continuous improvement is an integral component of strategic human resource development, and plays a vital role in guaranteeing organizational effectiveness while at the same time ensuring that firm gets maximum returns from its most crucial asset; its employees. Scholars and researchers such as Volney (2010) and Mauno, Kinnunen, & Ruokolainen (2007) have reported that innovative strategies and effective management regarding employees’ development can enable firms to exploit and embed skills and knowledge, which can give the organization competitive advantage. Therefore, organizations that aim at not only surviving, but also maximizing operational effectiveness in the dynamic business environment ought to make sure that all levels within the firm, the HR development strategy is in line with the firms broader strategic objectives, and that the HR development function receives sufficient consideration (McKenzie & Van Winkelen, 2004; Yee, Yeung, & Cheng, 2008; Armstrong, 2003). The management has the responsibility to ensure that the firm and its employees acquire the knowledge and competencies needed through training and development and education. In service organizations aiming to improve their performance using systematic change approaches such as continuous improvement, it is vital for the HR development function play a significant role in the continuous improvement process.

Armstrong (2003) asserts that organizations make use of continuous improvement to enhance their organizational processes and services and products delivered to clients. Empirical evidence points out that continuous improvement and organizational efficiency are positively related (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, & Wright, 2003; Emerson, 2012). Nevertheless, an auxiliary advantage associated with continuous improvement is that it strengthens an organization because of the positive influence it exerts on the workforce. Noe (2008) asserts that a continuous improvement culture ensures that all employees are involved. With a continuous improvement culture in place, all employees in the organization have the responsibility of searching for incremental improvements opportunities that are likely to enhance the firm’s efficiency. Continuous improvement culture also makes employees to become problem solvers since they will have a sense of obligation to improve the services, products or processes they are involved in. Mauno, Kinnunen, & Ruokolainen (2007) reported that firms with continuous improvement have employees who enjoy their work; this is because continuous improvement plays a significant role in helping employees to be engaged with their work resulting to job satisfaction.

A Model for Continuous Improvement to Promote Employee Satisfaction and Retention

            Russ (2008) reports that most organizations undertake employee satisfaction and workplace evaluations with the aim of gathering and analyzing the information required to make sure that all employees within the organization have the needed time, information, training and support to carry out their tasks efficiently, effectively and safely. According to Lockwood (2004), for organizations to accrue the best returns on investments about the employee satisfaction and workplace evaluations, it is imperative for the firm to have a lucid picture as regards to why it is undertaking the study at any particular time, and commit itself towards implementing the findings of the surveys. In this regard, Lockwood (2004) stipulates that continuous improvement offers a framework that the firm can utilize to facilitate positive improvements in the work environment. Continuous improvement places emphasis on “continuously” enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of all the aspects of the organization, including its workforce. Yazdani, Yaghoubi, & Giri (2011) assert that many continuous improvement aspects are linked to climate and culture of the firm’s workplace as well as the long term commitments held by employees towards the organization. From a HR perspective, continuous improvement can result in substantial improvements in employee satisfaction, organizational processes, leadership and communication (Yazdani, Yaghoubi, & Giri, 2011; Brown & Lam, 2008). Continuous improvement draws on the premise that managerial actions should not just focus on control and maintaining performance, but also creating change. In a firm with a well established continuous improvement culture, employee wellness programs are evaluated using the continuous improvement cycles.

Chi & Gursoy (2009) outlined a number of human resource factors that are vital in embedding the continuous improvement culture in an organization, which include talent flow, rewards (fairness), training and development, employee evaluations, employee wellness programs, perks and benefits, working conditions,  pay and promotion, and positive management. Regarding talent flow, Chi & Gursoy (2009) maintain that the HR department can establish hiring and promoting processes that acknowledge the behaviors and attitudes sought by the firm. In most organizations, hiring is based on expertise and not behaviors and attitudes; however, behaviors and attitudes in line with the direction and culture of the organization play a pivotal role in ensuring the success of continuous improvement. With respect to rewards, continuous improvement requires that individuals do not only perform their jobs, but also improve their work, With respect to training and development; Chi & Gursoy (2009) assert that it offers the skills and knowledge that employees need to improve the work, while ensuring that employees are satisfied. The conceptual model for investigating the link between continuous improvement approaches and employee satisfaction is shown in the figure 2 below, which is the research model for this study.

 

 

 

Figure 2: Conceptual Model

 

 

 

 

Research Methods

Research Design

Fisher (2007) defines research design as “the general plan outlining the steps to be undertaken by the researcher in answering the research questions.” In any form of study, the researcher can choose between qualitative method or quantitative method, or a mix of both methods depending on the nature of the study. This study will make use of a mixed research design involving both qualitative and quantitative research designs. Qualitative research design entails an inductive process of arranging the data gathered into groups and the n establishing the relationships and patterns between them. Fisher (2007) maintains that qualitative research design creates a holistic, narrative and broad description of the topic being investigated, which is a core requirement for this study. On the other hand, quantitative research design involves collecting and analyzing quantifiable data by use of statistical methods in order to come up with meaningful conclusions from the findings (Neuman, 2003). Quantitative research design involves the development of a conceptual framework with respect to the research problem; this forms the basis of investigation. This study adopted the mixed research design since the study is both descriptive and explorative in nature, hence, compelling the researcher to deploy both quantitative and qualitative methods. In addition, there are a number of components requiring the use of qualitative data whereas some components required quantitative data, thus, making the mixed research design more appropriate in this study (Neuman & Kreuger, 2006). Exploratory research is recommended in situations where problem is not clearly defined; therefore, the researcher is better placed to uncover new information. In the context of this study, exploratory research draws on the fact the fact that study sought to come up with recommendations that Emirates Airlines can use to enhance employee satisfaction and retention using continuous improvement measures. On the contrary, descriptive research is used in circumstances where the research problem is clearly structured, understood and defined. In the context of this study, descriptive study drew upon the conceptual model developed in the literature review section. Furthermore, the mixed research design was adopted for this study with the aim of enhancing the results readability since qualitative and quantitative research designs tend to sustain each other with regard to reliability and validity. The following figure visualizes the research design used in this study (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2007).

 

Figure 3: Visual Representation of Research Design

Sampling

            Fisher (2007) recommends the use of probabilistic sampling because it enhances the validity of the study and reduces bias. In line with this view, this study deployed random sampling, wherein the respondents are selected randomly without any inclusion criteria, provided that they were employees of the selected organization (Emirates Airlines). The sample size comprised of 50 Emirates Airlines employees selected randomly.

Data Collection

            Fisher (2007) asserts that the researcher can rely on either primary or secondary data depending on the nature of the study. Primary data refers to data gathered by the researcher through interaction with respondents whereas secondary data refers to data gathered and documented by other researchers exploring a similar topic. In this study, only primary data was used and was gathered through questionnaires and interviews. Fisher (2007, p. 125) defines questionnaire as “self-contained, self-administered instrument for asking questions.” Basing on the literature review, a self-administered questionnaire was designed to gather responses from Emirates Airlines employees regarding their levels of employees’ satisfaction and their perceptions regarding a number of continuous improvement variables known to affect employee satisfaction as outlined in the conceptual model in the literature review. In the questionnaire administered to employees, the following were observed:

1. Employees’ personal profile about age, gender, and years worked for the company.
2. Their levels of job satisfaction; and
3. Their perceptions towards the continuous improvement measures adopted by the company in an attempt to satisfy and retain its employees.

All the responses in the questionnaire were evaluated by a 5-point likert scale with 1 indicating strongly dislike/satisfied and 5 indicating strongly like/satisfied. A copy of the questionnaire is attached in the Appendix A.

Prior to distributing the questionnaires to Emirates Airlines Employees, the company was contacted in order to seek the permission to undertake a research using its employees. In addition, a request was made from the company to provide a list of email address and telephone numbers of its employees, which were used to forward the questionnaires and conduct interviews respectively. A total of 72 questionnaires were gathered from employees. Among these, only 50 were chosen for analysis basing on the completeness in answering the questions. Interviews were conducted via phone, and were helpful in gathering qualitative data. The interview protocol used in this study is attached in Appendix B.

Data Analysis

Data collected from the questionnaires were fed into SPSS version 20 for data analysis. The statistical tools for analyzing quantitative data included the measures of dispersion (standard deviation), measures of central tendency (mean) and the one-sample independent test. Qualitative data analysis was mainly analytical and entailed reporting the patterns and trends observed from the responses.

Ethical and Legal Considerations

Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill (2007) outline a number of ethical and legal concerns that researchers must take into consideration when undertaking any study; the following are the ethical and legal considerations that the study took into consideration:

1. The principle of voluntary participation: no respondent was forced into taking on this research;
2. Preservation of anonymity and confidentiality of respondents: the study did not gather any personal data that could be used to identify the respondents. In addition, in reporting the findings, there were no specific references relating to a respondent’s profile;
3. No harm to the respondents before, during and after the study: there were no any form of interventions or procedures performed on the respondents that could harm them physically, mentally or emotionally.

Limitations Associated with the Research Methods

            Fisher (2007) asserts that questionnaires have inherent limitations associated with misunderstanding and misinterpretation of questions, challenges in ascertaining the truthfulness of the information provided and respondents being unwilling to participate in the research. All these increases the marginal errors in the results reported.

Results

This section presents the responses obtained from respondents who took part in this study.

Respondent’s Characteristics

The figure below shows the composition of the respondents with respect to age groups.

Table 1: Age composition of Respondents

	Response Count	Percent (%)
18-25	10	20
25-35	18	36
35-45	11	22
Above 45	11	22

 

 

Figure 4: Age composition of Respondents

Gender Composition of Respondents

The table below shows the gender composition of the respondents for this study.

Table 2: Gender Composition of Respondents

	Response Count	Percentage (%)
Male	27	54
Female	23	46

 

Years Worked At Emirates

The table below shows the respondents’ composition with respect to the years worked at Emirates.

Table 3: Years Worked At Emirates

Years Worked At Emirates	Count	Percentage
Less than 1 year	4	8
2-5 years	12	24
5-10 years	25	50
More than 10 years	9	18
Total	50	100

 

Employees’ Level of Satisfaction

The table below shows the employees’ level of satisfaction at Emirates Airlines.

Table 4: Employees’ Level of Satisfaction

Level of Satisfaction	Response Count	Percentage
Not at all satisfied	7	14
Slightly satisfied	21	42
Moderately satisfied	9	18
Very satisfied	10	20
Extremely satisfied	3	6
Total	50	100

 

From the table above, it is apparent that a significant portion of the employees (42 percent) at Emirates Airlines are satisfied with their jobs. The following table shows a one-sample t-test to determine the overall level of employee satisfaction (with a test value of 3 = moderately satisfied).

 

 

From the one-sample t-test, the mean level of employee satisfaction at Emirates Airlines is M = 2.62, p<0.05, which is statistically significant from the hypothesized value of 3; therefore, it can be concluded that employees at Emirates are not satisfied with their jobs.

Effectiveness of continuous improvement measures in promoting employee satisfaction and retention at Emirates Airlines

            This was measured using employees’ perceptions regarding the measures undertaken by the company in guaranteeing their satisfaction and retention at the company. The results from the responses are shown in the table below.

Table 5: Effectiveness of continuous improvement measures in promoting employee satisfaction and retention at Emirates Airlines

Do you think your company is adopting sufficient measures to satisfy and retain its employees	Response Count	Percentage
No	27	54
Not Sure	3	6
Yes	20	40
Total	50	100

 

From the table, it is evident that Emirates Airlines has not adopted sufficient measures to satisfy and retain its employees; this presents an opportunity for improvement at the company.

Employees’ perceptions regarding the continuous improvement measures used at Emirates Airlines

This was measured using the employees’ ratings regarding their perceptions towards the various continuous improvement measures adopted by the company to with the intent of satisfying its employees. The results are shown in the table below using one-sample t-tests with the hypothesized value of 3 (moderately satisfied).

 

From the above table, it is evident that employees are more than moderately satisfied in terms of workplace conditions and pays and promotions (p< 0.05).  For fair rewarding, employees are not satisfied (M = 2.14, p < 0.05).  For the remaining variables (employment evaluations, employee wellness programs, employee training and development, and perks and benefits), there is no statistically significant difference between the means and the hypothesized test value (moderately satisfied) (p > 0.05).

Qualitative Data collected from interviews

From the interviews with the Emirates Airlines employees, the following trends and patterns can be inferred:

1. Most respondents were not satisfied with their work at the company and were considering leaving the company if presented with better opportunities
2. Most respondents felt that, in general, Emirates Airlines was not doing enough to satisfy its employees.
3. The respondents recommended that the company should embark on expanding the current employee training and development opportunities, ensuring that employees are rewarded fairly basing on their performance, provide better pays and opportunities for promotion, and expand its employee wellness programs.

Discussion

The primary objective of this study was to investigate the continuous improvement measures that Emirates Airlines are using to promote employee satisfaction and retention, especially with regard to the effectiveness of these measures, employee perceptions towards these measures, and to make recommendations for Emirates Airlines to implement in order to enhance its employee satisfaction and retention capacity. Evidence from the study suggests a number of trends summarized as follows:

1. Employees at Emirates Airlines are not satisfied with their jobs;
2. Emirates Airlines has not adopted sufficient measures to satisfy and retain its employees; this presents an opportunity for improvement at the company;
3. Regarding employees’ perceptions towards continuous improvement measures, findings suggest that employees are more than moderately satisfied in terms of workplace conditions and pays and promotions.
4.  With respect to fair rewarding, employees are not satisfied;
5. For the remaining variables of continuous improvement measures (employment evaluations, employee wellness programs, employee training and development, and perks and benefits), employees are moderately satisfied with these factors.

Conclusion

Recommendations for Emirates

The findings from this study have provided important insights regarding the level of employees’ satisfaction at the company as well as the effectiveness of the continuous improvement measures adopted by the company. Two things are evident: employees are not satisfied, and that the continuous improvement measures are not effective. In order to address this gap, the following recommendations are made for Emirates Airlines:

1. The company should embark on expanding the current employee training and development opportunities, ensuring that employees are rewarded fairly basing on their performance, provide better pays and opportunities for promotion, and expand its employee wellness programs;
2. Emirates Airlines should also prioritize employment evaluations, expanding employee wellness programs, employee training and development, and perks and benefits in order to ensure that employees are extremely satisfied with these initiatives.

Recommendations for Further Studies

The scope of this study is limited to Emirates Airlines only, which implies that the findings cannot be generalized. Further studies should incorporate diverse organizations in diverse industries in order to make the findings generalizable.

 

 

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